by Bai Bibo

Institute of Ethnic Cultures and Social Development

Yuxi Teachers College, Yunnan, China, 653100

Email: piubobai@gmail.com/baibibo@hotmail.com

 

I.                  Introduction to the Hani

The Hani nationality is a transnational and mountain agricultural nationality, mainly living in southwest China. Linguistically and ethnologically, those who are known as the Ahka in Burma, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam are immediately related to the Hani nationality. Therefore, the Akhas and the Hanis are lumped into one, the Hani nationality.

The Hani is one of the 55 minority nationalities in China with a population of 1.4 million (2000) which ranks No. 15 by the population in the country, and No. 3 by the population among the Yunnan provincial nationalities. Besides, there are about 400,000 Akhas in Myanmar, 70,000 in Thailand, 60,000 in Laos, and a few thousand in Vietnam (Noel Kya Heh, 2005).

The Hanis mainly live in Yunnan province, of whom 700,000 Hanis inhabit in Honghe Hani and Yi Nationalities Autonomous Prefecture which comprises 17 percent of the prefecture population that equals to 50 percent of the Hani total population in China. Remote Honghe, Yuanyang, Luchun and Jinping counties of the south bank of the Red River Valley are main territories of Hanis (Ge Bu, 2005). Mojiang, Pu’er, Zhenyuan, Jingdong, Jiangcheng, Lancang counties under the Simao jurisdiction are also the Hanis’ dwelling places. In Xishuangbanna Dai Nationality Autonomous Prefecture, the Hanis live in Jinghong, Mengla and Monghe counties. In Yuxi municipality, the Hanis live in Yuanjiang Hani, Yi and Dai Nationalities Autonomous County and Xinping Yi and Dai Nationalities County. Over 90 percent of the Hanis in China live compactly in the counties mentioned above. There are some Hanis scattered in Jinning, Luquan, Shuangbo, Hongta District, Eshan, Yimen, Tonghai, Jianshui, Shiping, Simao, Menglian, Jinggu counties and cities.

 

II.               The Hani Language

The Hani language is one of the southern Yi languages group in Burmese-Lolo languages cluster under the Tibetan-Burmese languages branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. The Chinese linguists have identified the Hani language into three major dialects: the Ha-Ya Dialect, Hao-Bai Dialect and Bika Dialect. The Ha-Ya Dialect has been further divided into the Hani and Yani sub-dialects with more variants in each sub-dialect respectively. The distribution of the Hani sub-dialect is in Honghe, Yuanyang, Luchun and Jinping counties under the jurisdiction of Honghe Hani and Yi Nationalities Autonomous Prefecture, while the Yani sub-dialect distributes in the Xishunbannan Dai Nationality Autonomous Prefecture and Lancang and Pu’er Counties of Simao Prefecture (Dai Qingxia and Duan Kuangle, 1995).

The Hao-Bai Dialect has two sub-dialects: Haoni and Baihong. They mainly distribute in Mongjiang Hani Nationality Autonomous County, Pu’er Hani andYi Nationalities Counties, and Yuanjiang Hani, Yi and Dai Nationalities Autonomous County.

The Bi-Ka Dialect has been classified into three sub-dialects: Biyue, Kaduo and Enu which are scattered in Mojiang Hani Nationality Autonomous County, Jiangcheng Hani and Yi Nationalities County and Zhenyuan, Jingdong County etc. (Li Yongsui and Wang Ersong, 1986). The Ha-Ya and the Hao-Bai Dialects are fairly mutually intelligible, but the Bi-Ka dialect and the rest two dialects are not mutually intelligible. Nevertheless, sub-dialects and variants in a given dialect are mutually intelligible.

 

III.           The Hani Orthography

The Hanis did not have a traditional written language before 1957. So oral teaching and heart memorizing was a significant means of cultural inheritance in its long history. In 1957 Chinese government designed the Hani orthography which is based on the Luchun Dazhai language, one of the many varieties of the Hani sub-dialects. It is a Latin alphabetic orthography known as the Hani orthography. One designing principle is to be easy to transfer the Chinese Pinyin. It uses a means of post consonant letters to indicate tones. It has had two revisions in 1958 and 1983 (Yunnan Province Records, 1998) from the initial form in 1957. What we are discussing and using in our literacy and publication is the 1983 version.

 

IV. Application of the Hani Language and Orthography

 

4.1 Hani Nationality Language and Writing Education

The Hani language and orthography education organized by government institutions appears four levels of teaching. The first level is higher level education in colleges and universities; the second is an intermediate level training, the third level is primary school education, and the fourth is folk literacy campaign.

4.1.1 Higher Education

The Hani language and orthography was taught in a couple of universities since the Hani orthography was approved. In 1958, the Central University for Nationality enrolled two Hani major classes in the year 1958 and in the year 1963, which trained 14 under graduate programs students. And then in 1985 the Third Department of the Nationality Languages and Literature in Central University for Nationality enrolled 11 Hani students for a two-year program. Yunnan University for Nationalities enrolled 13 Hani students in the year 1992 and in the year 1993 for a two-year college program. These Hani graduates have become backbones of the Hani language work in all walks of fields. Unfortunately, Hanis do not have a regular and permanent major in any higher education institution.

4.1.2 Intermediate Education

The intermediate level of the Hani language education means that the Hani language and orthography was taught as an intermediate level training under sponsored by the local institutions in the last four decades or so. They were trained to be Hani literacy school teachers and cultural workers. Immediately after the Hani orthography was approved in the year 1958, the first Hani language and orthography training class was held in the Yunnan University for Nationalities. In the same year, the Honghe Hani and Yi Nationalities Autonomous Prefecture trained a few hundred nationalities team members and teachers in Honghe, Yuanyang，Luchun and Jinping counties. In the year 1984 and 1989, the Normal School of the Honghe Hani and Yi Minority Nationalities Autonomous Prefecture and the Institute of Honghe Minority Nationalities held a short term Hani writing training class respectively. In the year 1985 and the year 1991, the Yunnan Minority Nationality Languages and Writings Instruction Commission sponsored two intermediate level Hani language and orthography training classes. In the year 2001 and 2002 Yuxi Teachers’ College taught two short terms’ Hani literacy teachers’ training classes in Yuxi and Luchun County.

4.1.3 Primary Education

The third level of the Hani language teaching is to implement Hani and Han bilingual teaching experiment in some primary schools in the Hani communities, where Hani is major communication tool. In 1984, the government of Honghe Hani and Yi Nationalities Autonomous Prefecture decided to carry out Hani-Han bilingual education in some Primary Schools in Honghe, Yuanyang, Luchun and Jinping counties. The purpose is to help the Hani kids learn to read and write Hani first before they start to learn a new language, Chinese language and writing. The Guangma Village Hani-Han Primary School in Luchun County is only one which has been doing. This experiment is successful which has drawn rich experience in the Hani-Han bilingual practice. This school has trained some good bilingual pupils. Unfortunately, they do not have further opportunities to study in middle schools, nor further.

4.1.4 Literacy Education

The fourth level is folk literacy campaign in Hani communities since the beginning of the Hani Orthography. In the year 1958, the Honghe Hani and Yi Nationalities Autonomous Prefecture carried out a big literacy campaign to eliminate Hani youth and adult illiterates in the Hani territory in Honghe, Yuanyang，Luchun and Jinping counties. In three months it eliminated 53,717Hani youths and adults illiterates or semi-illiterates, which approved the Hani people loved to learn their  language and orthography. However, the experiment Hani literacy campaign could not last long for various situations then.

In the 1980s, the Hani literacy work was restored in some Hani communities, such as adult literacy campaign in Habo Village Union of Ezha Township in Yuanyang County and in Qingkou Village Union of Adebo Township in Jinping County which also showed a good result. Some farmers have become successful businessmen or plantation owners after they learned Hani. They have organized evening schools of agricultural science and village cultural propaganda troupes which have played very good roles to maintain and preserve their language and culture.

 

4.2 Media Dissemination

Since 1983, the Hani language broadcasting programs have been established in Xishuangbanna Dai Nationalities Prefecture Broadcasting Station and in Honghe Hani and Yi Nationalities Autonomous Prefecture Broadcasting Station. Through last 20 years’ strive, the Hani language broadcasting programs have reached in all Hani areas and some adjacent border areas which enriches the spiritual life of the Hani people.

The Honghe Prefecture Hani Film Translation Studios established in 1964. Since then it did 9 Chinese films interpretation simultaneously such as Nongnu, Duoyin etc. In the 1980s, 82 Chinese films were translated and recorded in Hani, of them 64 stories, 16 documentaries and 2 cartoons. From 1980 to 1986, there were 2219 shows of films in the Hani communities with 946,659 audiences (Ge Bu, 2005).

 

4.3 Publications

The Yunnan Nationalities Publishing House has been restored the   publication of the Hani language books since 1984. Ever since then it has printed 74 kinds of Hani books which includes 8 kinds of political books, 7 kinds of science readers, 38 kinds of arts, 9 kinds of text books, 5 kinds of dictionaries, 2 kinds of comprehension, and 2 kinds of others. Some very important and popular works have been printed, such as Hani epics, Songs of the Hani Proprieties and Customs, Chinese-Hani Dictionary etc.

 

V. Existing Problems in Application of the Hani Orthography

5.1 Hani Language Attitudes

A recent questionnaire survey conducted by Honghe Hani and Yi Nationalities Autonomous Prefecture, Mr. Ge Bu reports the following facts:

（1）Hanis comprises 89.34 percent of the respondents most of whom can use their oral language fluently in their labor and life.

（2）Of the 122 respondents, 83 persons do not know there is the Hani Orthography existing, comprising 86.03 percent.

（3）If a learning chance is offered, 113 persons are willing to learn the Hani script, comprising 92.62 percent; If a learning chance is offered, 9 persons, of whom 2 Hanis and 7 other group members, are not willing to learn the Hani script, comprising 7.38 percent.

However, the government language attitude and language value orient mass language attitude. The government monolingual education which has spent much more efforts on Chinese language and culture education has strengthened one dominant culture tendency. This tendency affects few Hani leaders too much to think that Hani is useless in the social competition, and to believe the Chinese culture is an advanced culture, while the Hani culture is a backward one. Even though it has spent some efforts on the Hani language research and education, it has negated to encourage wide mass use of their current orthography to raise their awareness of cultural continuance, their social and political status. The Chinese social situation and criteria have made some Hanis feel they are belittled and weakened in social life competition which leads them to astray that their culture is degraded and only the Chinese should be learned if they want to melt into the main steam of the Chinese culture and society and if they want to improve their life standard, and if the Hani society and economy want to realize a leap forward development.

Due to the strong impact of the dominant cultures, some Hanis think that Chinese and English are main communication tools in modern society. Spreading science and culture depends on these two dominant languages and writings. For the Hani did not have their traditional script and written habit, some Hanis who have learned Hani confess they have not got any benefits from their written language.

The rest Hani people think bilingual teaching means to increase pupils’ loads, and Hani pupils should study Chinese hard at schools. Therefore a lot of people remain an indifferent attitude to use and popularize the Hani orthography.

 

5.2 Shortage of Human Resources

For various reasons, however, the construction and development of the languages and orthographies have been moving off and on since the 1950s. It could not guarantee a successive development. In addition, little funds have been invested into the nationality language and orthography education for Chinese large population. Although the nation advocates a means of bilingual teaching in lower grades in minority nationality communities, yet most of teachers can not read nationality written languages. Moreover bigger portion of teachers are lack of bilingual teaching approaches for they have not been trained. They can hardly control their classroom teaching. Running out of qualified bilingual teachers and a shortage of human resources is a serious problem in applying and popularizing the Hani languages and orthographies currently.

 

5.3 Shortage of Teaching Resources

Even though some of Hani publications have come out from the Yunnan Nationalities Press since the 1980s, there are fewer books suitable for Hani literate readers however. It is apparently the bilingual text books for students to use in their bilingual learning mostly are translated from Chinese. There seems too much unfamiliar Chinese cultural background knowledge and information for young kids, and awkward translations which is inconsistent with and improper to lower grades bilingual teaching aims and principles. Therefore a shortage of proper teaching resources is another serious problem that Hani language teaching in schools is facing. Only appropriate and natural Hani language materials are offered to Hani students in their bilingual teaching, can teachers establish “scaffolding” between the Hani language and Chinese language to help students reach a high point (Vigotsky, 1978).

 

VI. Project of Preserving Hani Language

6.1 Hani Literacy Teachers’ Training

Through the last years’ application and teaching experience, we have seen that the main issues are: language attitude, shortage of human resources and shortage of teaching resources. Language attitude is a hard issue which can not be changed in a short period. But we can do our efforts to improve the rest issues. So some projects have been established. In March of 2001, Yuxi Teachers College has trained 24 Hani language teachers, of whom 15 Hanis were from the Hani villages of Yuxi Municipality, 7 from the Honghe Hani and Yi Nationalities Autonomous Prefecture, one was Akha from Thailand, and one was from Canada. Most of them were primary school teachers, some of them were Hani folklore workers. They first learned basic lore of the Hani orthography and the rules how to read and write. Then after 20 days’ intensive training, some of them were able to write proverbs, stories, love songs and ballads in their own language. Mr. Ni Weishun was highlighted one. He was 46 years old when he was trained. He was a director of cultural station in Yangjie Township of Yuanjiang Hani, Yi and Dai Nationality Autonomous County of Yuxi Municipality. He could not write and read a single Hani before he came to this training class. However, after 20 days’ study, he could not only learn to read and write in Hani, but also produce arts programs. For his special artistic techniques and creativity, he was invited as an honorable art and dance professor to instruct the students of Music and Dance Department of Yuxi Teachers College (Yang, Shihua & Bai, Bibo 2003).

 

6.2 Establishing Hani Literacy Centre

Due to a limited fund, the second Hani literacy training class was trained in a Hani community in Luchun County instead of in Yuxi Teachers’ College campus in March, 2002. There were two classes which had 66 participants in this term. Class One was of local culture station directors and government civil workers with 30 trainees whose first language was Hani. Class Two was of 36 local Hani farmers; most of whom had never had any chance to go to school before they came to the class. So they could not read and write any Chinese, either. But Through 20 days’ intensive training, some had a good command of Hani writing. They could read and write fluently. They were asked to submit their anything else as assignments during their training. Therefore they took down their daily activities and they also collected some children’s rhymes, proverbs, riddles, folk stories, poems, food recipes, which enabled the instructors to compile a collection of Hani essays when the classes were finished. This was really an amazing achievement that this farmer literacy class became a model of learning Hani. What was more encouraging was six of the trainees have become main teachers of the Hani Literacy Centre later.

Under the inspiration and encouragement of the two training classes in Luchun County in March, 2002，the Institute of Ethnic Cultures and Social Development of Yuxi Teachers’ College helped and guided the Hani village farmers to establish a first Hani Literacy Centre of its kind in a Hani village in Luchun, China then. The sign of the center was put on the wall of the Village Women’s House. The center has been using their class rooms. This center’s object is to attempt to build a learning community in Hani society. Its missions were to train Hani farmers to learn Hani and provide readings to fellow farmers. From the year 2002 to 2005, financially supported by some Hani friends, the Hani Literacy Centre has been teaching Hani farmers to learn Hani orthography. The six farmer teachers have become very active teachers and have gone to Gaoqma (Guangma), Tavqzaoq(Dazhai), Aqlaoq Naqhhal (Aluona), Naqlolgov (Naluogo), Aqlaoq Puvteil (Aluo Potou) and Niuqhaoq (Niuhong) villages to teach Hani in the evening. They have taught 16 classes, and trained over 600 Hani farmers so far.

Meanwhile the six Hani farmer teachers have been striving to compile a Hani-Chinese bilingual paper Haqniq Yeillul Soqhhaq (Hani Wenhua Bao in pinyin, Hani Culture Paper) for literates to read since July 2002 financially helped by some friends. This paper has been warmly welcomed by Hani literates. Mr. Bai Song (Deiq Cul in Hani) and Bai Jinshan (Ju Sal in Hani) are the major editors of this bilingual paper. For their good work on Hani literacy, both of them have been enrolled as members of local Hani cultural and historical material collectors by Luchun County government. For their good work on the Hani literacy, 8 of the farmer teachers were invited to have a study tour and cultural exchange with Akha people in Northern Thailand for two weeks in 2003.

Mr. Bai Song, 50 years old, was invited by the Yunnan Provincial Education Commission as one of the Hani-Han Textbooks Compiling Committee members, joining in checking and translating Hani-Chinese Primary Text-books. He was also invited as a Hani translator by Yunnan Nationality Publishing Press. 

The Hani Literacy Center has turned into a place for Hani farmers to learn to read and write Hani, a place to collect and compile Hani linguistic and cultural materials, a place to serve Hani people their language maintenance and preservation. In the last few years it has collected over 7,000 lines of the Hani Death Ritual Text (Haqniq Colsil Neivqtul Doq).

However, the Hani Literacy Center’s farmer teachers can not invest their full time into this meaningful work for they are family rice providers. They have to make their living by laboring in the fields. For a limited donation and a lack of regular funds this literacy center cannot set a long term project; nor had an official Hani NGO.

 

VII. Summary

Through the Hani literacy project, we have obtained some exciting achievements:

Firstly, some Hanis have changed their attitude toward their own language and culture. They have witnessed some practical activities and cultural events they organized for themselves, in which they have realized their own nationality responsibilities and prides. These events have greatly awakened their awareness of the importance of continuation of their language and culture.

Secondly, they, in fact，have had more privileges and opportunities when they learned Hani. Some of them have become tutors of outsiders. Some are invited to do co-operate language projects; some have become Hani culture guides; some have become interpreters and informants of Hani language research in their communities. They could not have had such chances if they could not read and write Hani.

Thirdly, Hani literacy is one of the quickest ways to eliminate Hani illiterates. It is also one of the best symbols to raise their language status and empower their dignity as well as their equality.

Fourthly, several of them have learned how to use computer which enables them to have access to internet and send email message to others. Mr. Bai Jinshan and Bai Song use computer to edit the Hani Culture Paper (Haqniq Yeillul Soqhhaq) which widens their connections with outside world and information channels, and also increases their new culture knowledge.

We think application of their language in various ways is the best way to preserve and maintain their language. However, most Hani folks can not use this written language tool. Even majority Hani people do not know/hear there is a Hani script existing. They do not have any means to access to it for no one teaches them. They can not enjoy benefits of their written language for they can not read and write it.

In conclusion, the governments, organizations and individuals should not only encourage and help minority nationality people to learn national languages, but also encourage and help them to learn their own languages. Assist them to build a learning society, and offer them opportunities of learning their languages. Can their languages be maintained and preserved only by application in their survival competition.

 

References:

Dai, Qingxia & Duan, Kuangle. 1995. Brief Introduction to Hani Language. Kunming: Yunnan Nationality Press.

Li, Yongsui & Wa, Ersong.1986. Brief Records of the Hani Language. Beijing: Nationality Press.

Vygotsky, L. 1978. Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.

Yang, Shihua & Bai, Bibo 2003. Yuxi Hani Culture Research: Yunnan Nationality Press.

Yunnan Province Records, Volume 59 of the Local Annals of the People’s Republic of China. 1998: Yunnan People’s Press.

Kya Heh, N. 2005.The Current Status of Akha: Paper Presentation at The Fifth International Conference on Hani/Akha Culture.

Ge Bu. 2005: A Survey of Hani Orthography Application: Paper Presentation at The Fifth International Conference on Hani/Akha Culture.

 

 

 

Bai Bibo

Associate Professor and Executive Director

Institute of Ethnic Cultures and Social Development

Yuxi Teachers College, Yunnan, China, 653100

Email: piubobai@gmail.com/baibibo@hotmail.com